The State and Emancipation

Sept 4, 2007 HSS 201 Lecture 4 Karl Marx

The Mode of Production--> Relation of production, production forces, Contradiction between class; class consciousness and class antagonisms which leads to revolution in the end.

Revolution products the New mode of production

Mode of production decides the structure and superstructure which constitutes political, legal and social.

In Marxist sociology, the economic and political are closely linked.

State, Emancipation, future society

Reading “on the Jewish question”

1834-1844

Jews were demanding religious emancipation
Bruno Bauer thinks that the state should not adapt any religion, to be neutral, so that Jews will not be discriminated. He argued for political emancipation, to end the discrimination against Jews, the states must cease to be Christian (no discrimination)

This seems very impressive, but not enough for Marx

Here Bauer’s fault lies in the fact that he subjects only Christian State to his critique, not “state as such”, a type of a state. That he does not investigate the relationship of the state of human. The secular state does not mean that religion will disappear.

Getting rid of religion from the political sphere is not enough. That shows that existence of religion does not contradict /impede the perfection of state.

Note: the attitude of the man who makes up the state to religion, if existence of religious is the existence of a defect, what is the source of this defect?

The nature of the state?

Man’s dual personality in modern state:

1. Communal social aspect- coincide with universalism of the state
• Communal and universalism of the state
• At the level of constitutes, and discover a citizenship, right and duties and stake in state.

2. Every life in civil society, individuals living in isolation from one another, in competition among themselves in civil society, the separation of man into a public and private man, (dual personality)

Man is leading a double life, he has a life both political community where he is active as a private individual treats other man as means, degrades himself to a mean too. Social citizen and competitive, individuals, e.g. Jewish, He has a life both in political and plaything of alien power.

Political emancipation of religion
The decomposition oneself from religious (JQ 47)

Marx’s analysis of “state”
• Above the economic structure, the official stratum of society
• The legal and political superstructure, the political, economic etc
• State arises upon conflicts material interest already existing in the relation of production
• Reason: if there is no conflict, then there is no need for any legal political superstructure to preside over the economic structure.

Marx’s criticism
• Modern state presuppose a gap between sates and civil society (economic realm)
• Institutions to fill this gap
• These institutes were in fact cloaks for particular interests in civil society.
• Institutions are in fact cloaks for people with vested interests

Bureaucracy: - most essential parts of state apparatus
The ruling class absorb the people into bureaucracy, it become caste: through higher education, claimed monopoly in interpreting state interests, self-perpetuating
Bureaucratic procedures give the impression that the state works fro general interests of society, i.e. it embodies universal principles, but in actual fact, the state, captured by ruling class, bourgeoisie, apparatus is held by the dominant class in society.
The ruling class, in the state, needs ideology to convince and conceal.

Ideology- to convince and to conceal

To convince the mass that the state is neural and but in fact
To conceal the fact that the state actually acts to preserve, exiting relations of production, and the masses that the state is neutral and universal character.

The State has limited autonomy: because its aims cannot be fully achieved,
E.g., French and American civil revolution, which was sought to emancipation man as political citizen but to Marx, man is still enslaved to civil society, i.e. by the economic production; enslaved by the capitalist mode of production. Through the abolition of the states the dual personality will be abolished too.

Abolishment and dualism

Solution must be found beyond the state. The state must be transcended, social revolution is needed.

“One Jews question” Marx is criticising Bruno’s idea and political emancipation, which is reduction of man, (member of civil society and citizen of moral person) is not enough, social revolution needed.

If the alienation is not resolved, then there is no emancipation.

Marx thinks the state is not neutral. Marx was the dualism of man’s personality to be resolved to transcend the state.

How will social revolution and real emancipation to be accomplished?

• The important concept of Praxis- the unity of correct understanding the theory and practice (both are important)
• Praxis: combining analysis of internal working and capitalism, human agency, class consciousness. That requires philosophical work and human agency.
• Revolutionaries reality through social action: Thesis XI: “philosophers only interpret the world, the points is to change it”
• Revolution must be based on an adequate group of the situation, understanding how capitalist system works.

Marx’s analysis of the internal mechanism of capitalism provided the adequate theoretical understanding of the system (theory); needs to be combined to the practical part to associations (practice)

Importance of associations: workers create bonds among themselves in the process, changing reality and creation of class consciousness. That is why capitalist states fear the unions, often to oppress them.

Revolution Praxis: the unity of theory and Practice: - embodying an objective and subjective elements.
• The need to be theoretically informed so as to take action
• Need the right circumstance (economic crisis) and awareness, education on working class
• Proletariat has to be a class for itself, class consciousness

Success of revolution would not be achieved if it is confined to one country. It needs to build up working class parties around the world.

Transitional period: The dictatorship of proletarian
Dictatorship and violence only strictly temporary measures;
Non democratic societies: revolution will be violent,
Bourgeoisie society: revolution occurs through ballots; violence only if bourgeoisies restated to violence to go against the wishes of majority.

Transcendence and abolitions of the state
When class rule will have disappeared there will no longer be any state in the present sense of the world. If there is no class, there will not be a need for the state to exist.

Role of state in communism society:-
Exact nature: to be found scientifically, Marx did not give a blueprint.
In transitional period between capitalist and communist, society will be under dictatorship of proletariat, who will capture state power.

Future communist society (Marx did not want to forecast)- idealism that lack of concrete empirical class

Some features:
• Democratically elected government appointees, judges and administrators, police, appointments could be revoked at any time.
• Political officials paid according workers wages, to prevent political careerism
• System operates at all level of government, small hamlet, national legislature and executive

Tension between state and civil society: - double life of the citizen in a bourgeois state will be abolished, no private vs. public distinction, return of social man.

Man’s discovery of his species being: - communal creativities communism is the positive abolition of private property, and thus human self-alienation, therefore the real re-appropriation of human essence by and for man (EPM)

Marx Portrayal of communism:

1, man in touch with himself and fellow men , in turn with his species being.
2, all contradictions prevailed within capitalism resolved so communism a steady state? The ultimate system? End of history, since there are no class struggles any more?

Ownership of private property is the sort of class domination, therefore if the former is abolished, so is the latter.

Q: How can we understand Marx’s ideas in relation to our society now? The structure and superstructure?

How Marxism is operationalized has brought to many? Heaven on earth?
Marxist sociology and ideas continue to exert influence and inspired many people and social movement around the world.

Social Structure and Capitalism

Aug 28, 2007-08-28

Capitalist economy focuses on mode of production.

Key concept to learn: labour, values of commodity, class structure, class struggles, revolution.

Capitalist economy is analysed as a system of commodity production which is based upon wage labour.

In commodity production, labour involved can be seen as;

Concrete labour: particular skills or practices necessary to products specific things.

Abstract labour: expenditure of human labour power in general in the production of commodity. For example, labour is commodified and sold to capitalist for his use for a specific period of time, and worker get paid for a wage.

Labour power is the capacity to work which is brought and employed by capitalist and from which surplus value is extracted.

In capitalism, worker agrees to submit to the employer’s authority for a fixed period of time, employer has freedom to use the labour power and the surplus product created as he wishes.

Production of commodities

Use value-
-its production is a natural human expression
- An object can have use value regardless whether it is also a commodity;
-produced to satisfy one’s needs.

Exchange value:

• The ratio at which a commodity exchange against others
• Exchange mediated by money
• Inseparable from the market

(Fetishism of Commodities)

Commodity is a product which possesses exchange value, which is determined by the market, it conceals the value of labour power which is embodied in the object.

Surplus value: The difference between the exchange value and the cost of production of a commodity, appropriated by capitalist as profits. It can be using for pay for rent, interest of bank, etc, or for capitalist own use and consumption, or reinvest to make more surplus value.

Exploitation of labour
In order to increase productivity of labour relative to constant capital, the capitalist will:-
o Increasing working hours: raise rate of surplus value
o Decrease wages below their value
o Increase use of machinery.

“The greater division of labour enables one worker to do the work of five, ten or twenty, it therefore multiply….” (Wage labour and capital)

Product is alienated from worker, the producer.

Alienation : is the consequence of capitalism on the working class due to division of labour, refers to man loses to someone or something certain aspects which are essential to his nature, specifically, loss of control over own activities and initiator of the historical process.

There are four aspects of alienation:

1. Alienation from the product.
The process of labour and production is the realization of labour, an objectification. This alienation makes worker lost its own labour reality.
“Fetishism of commodity
Fetish is a material object attributed with super-nature power.
Fetishism of commodity is not referring to the fixing of desires upon commodity, but fetish character of the commodity as a special kind of object, commodity is not only as a physical entity but also as a monetary value.

However, the value of commodity is determined by market demand and supply, therefore, the labour’s contribution is concealed and overlooked.

Under Fetishism of commodities society, social relationships between workers from different line are concealed and disgusted. The value of labour is also concealed.

2. Alienation from productive activity.

When the worker sells his labour power to a capitalist for wages in a specific timeframe, he does not have freedom to exercise his own will in production and other conscious activities.

3. Alienation from species being the human nature

Species being requires human being to interact in his productive life; free conscious activity is one of men’s characteristics. This alienation turns workers productive life into a mere means of sustaining the worker’s individual existing and of his fellow men.

4. Alienation from nature, subjugation and exploitation.

In olden days, under a less rationally system, God was a power over man with absolute power and authority; now as more ‘rational’ system, working class were under a small group of capitalists’ power.

Class, in Marx’s theoretical framework, often is used in two ways:-

1. Relationship to prevailing mode of production
2. A group’s consciousness of itself as a class with its own political organization.

Classes emerge when division of labour allows for the accumulation of surplus production that can be appropriated by a minority grouping. This small group stands in an exploitative relationship with the majority who are the producers.

In capitalism society, there are three main classes: capitalist, proletariat, landowners.

Some argued that there is also an intermediate /transitional class, e.g. petit bourgeoisie, these classes; however, will slowly dissolving into two polarized classes of Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. Class objective face (looking from outsider) and Class consciousness (looking from inside, recognition themselves as one of classes), that lead class struggles.

“Class struggle is the active expression of class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, leading ideologists of communism, wrote "The [written][1] history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle"[2].
Marx's notion of class has nothing to do with hereditary caste, nor is it exactly social class in the sociological sense of upper, middle and lower classes (which are often defined in terms of quantitative income or wealth). Instead, in an age of capitalism, Marx describes an economic class. Membership of a class is defined by one's relationship to the means of production, i.e., one's position in the social structure that characterizes capitalism. Marx talks mainly about two classes that include the vast majority of the population, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Other classes such as the petty bourgeoisie share characteristics of both of these main classes. ”*1

Main Contributions of Marx:

o Show classes linked to particular epochs in the development of productions
o Class struggles would lead to dictatorship of the proletariat and a classless society
o The engine of social change is class struggle

“The "dictatorship of the proletariat" is a term employed by Marxists that refers to a temporary state between the capitalist society and the classless and stateless communist society; during this transition period, "the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat". The term does not refer to a concentration of power by a dictator, but to a situation where the proletariat (working class) would hold power and replace the current political system controlled by the bourgeoisie (propertied class).”*2

*1 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_struggle
*2 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat

Karl Marx and his study on human society.

Marx’s analytical style is Materialist approach Marx’s analytical style is Materialist approach. It, in sociology term, materialist refers to a distinctive approach to understand human beings and human society.

Marx’s approach is based on series of fundamental assumptions:
o He suggested that humans can be distinguished form other animals mainly is that humans produce the material necessities of life.
o The need to survival leads the need to produce.
o In these process of production, human beings interact with one another

Therefore, he suggested that to understand human society we must investigate and understand how the production of society’s materials necessities is organized.

The human activities of productions the material good for satisfying his needs, and services involves the using of technology, tools, knowledge, skills which Marx called Productive forces.

The nature of the productive process is determined by both the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of the social relations of production, that is, the patterns of ownership use and control of the productive forces.
Marx linked the existence of classes, based on different economic position, with existence of ideology dominations. Here ideology refers to sets of ideas or beliefs that justify or legitimate the social structures and arrangements of capitalist society.

“The ruling classes’ ideas are in every epoch the ruling ideas.” The ruling class attempts to influence all aspects of the social structure, including the way people think.

The class with economic power is always able to influence the government and the state to ensure that the political order acts in its long-term interests.

Alienation of man, in Marx’s sense, refers to a loss of control over the process, products and relations of material production. The concept is based on the assumption that the essential defining characteristic of human being is their ability to labour and produce satisfaction for their material wants and needs. Humans express and realize and express their true humanity through their productive activity, and loss of control of the various aspects of this activity is a loss of an important part of their humanity.

Marxist Theories of Class- explain social inequality


Stratification- associate with functionalist perspectives, assumes that individuals in society are layered or arranged in strata. According to the stratification theorists, there are three quite distinct dimensions of the stratifications systems: class, statues and power


Concept of class: Bourgeoisie, and proletarian.
Largely based on income (amount or source) a category of people who share similar economic characteristics. The relationship between different classes is usually understood in term of a layering situation in which one class has more income and is placed higher in a hierarchy while another class has less income and is ranked lower. There is no implied antagonistic relationship between and among classes.

Karl Marx Lecture 2

August 21, 2007 Marx -2

We are going to exam the following key concepts of Marx:
o Philosophy of history
o Consciousness
o False consciousness
o Ideology

Hegel’s view on history Review
o History as development and conflict of abstract principles
o Dialectical movement- every state of affair contains within itself the seeds of its own destruction and transformation to a higher stage
o Thesis ---Antithesis

Marx’s view on dialectic, appropriation but not whole accepted
Marx’s view on
o History: contains creation, satisfaction and recreation of human needs
o In these process, human beings develop different types of society

Thought Marx was regarded as Historical Materialism, but that only used to explain his socio-historical changes.

Marx thinks:

History is a social change by human agency in response to production relationship, which contains structures changes and human subjectivity (consciousness)

Marx’s criticism to Feuerbach

o Feuerbach ignored the creative subject of human beings that actively modified the world through production
o Feuerbach doesn’t grasp the significant of revolutionary of “practical-critical” activity
o “Contemplative materialism” doesn’t comprehend sensuousness
Mark thinks to “change” the world, is more important than just to “interpret” world.

German Ideology (1884)

Summary: Marx’s criticism to German philosophy system as well as their understanding of human social development process and progress, instead of accepting “idea” to “objectification”, he suggested……

Stage of societal development
Engine of historical changes: due to class struggles

(Question: is that class struggles is because division of labour? If so, the class struggles is no way to avoid, as long as the division of labour exists and counties to develop)

There are four stages of social history development according to Marx:

The Stage of Social Development

Type of Society	Ownership	Degree of Division of Labour	Class struggles	Private Property
Primitive	tribal	Low, elementary	Low, or none	none
Ancient communal	State	Start to develop	Low	less
Feudal	Estate to Lords and kings	middle	Landlords vs peasant	belong to landlord
Capital	Capitalists	Highly developed	Bourgeoisie vs Proletariat	captialists

Conception of history (p172)

Depends on our ability to expound the real process of production, starting out form the material production of life itself and to comprehend the form of intercourse connected with this and created by this mode of production at the basis of all history.

Social and historical changes are tension between agency and structure. Agency here refers to human beings are constrained in social structure. Ritzer (1998) pointed out that dialectical relationship between agency and structure in larger scales is the historical and social changes.

Consciousness is a social product; Marx thinks consciousness only exists when needs rise.

Consciousness of nature
o Rooted in human productive activity, is a social product
o Only exist when needs are required, their consciousness and activities are not isolated from one another.

Human consciousness, dialectical interplay between a creative subject and the objective material environment

Mode of production in capitalism society:
o Ownership of force of production
o Relationship of production

Social being -- class consciousness -- social class-- class struggles

Class consciousness is an essential condition that can help bring about the change from capital to communist.

Class position, shape our ideas about the world and social relationship and in all class society: dominant ideas about who we are and what we ought to be are ideas of ruling class.

False consciousness: refers to social classes do not possess correct assessments of how the system works and their roles and interests in it.

Eg. Proletariat class:
1. they are unaware of they are the oppressed
2. see the idea system of bourgeoisie as natural as their own
3. unaware of their historical revolutionary potential

Difficulty in overcoming false consciousness

Ideology: one impediment to gain true class consciousness (more of the ruling class’s ideas)

o Formulated ideas
o Refers to human affairs
o Public
o Subject to state control

End of ideology when class domination in general ceases to be the form in which the social order is organized “general interest” as ruling interest.

Ruling class ideas--- political, economic dominance
What are the effects of ruling ideas/ ideology?
What are the resistances to the dominant ideology?
What form does resistance take? What are the alternative media to address general interest?

Karl Marx Lecture 1

Week 2 Aug 14, 2007

General information of Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx, the founder of Marxism which has been captured many communist counties like China, Vietnams to embrace wholly into their social and political regime. Communism also has become a political ideology in ruling party.

Marx’s main concern: social inequality, social classes, and political ideology.

He was influence by German philosopher Hegal.

1. Idealist- a way to understand the world. Hegal thinks that Reality only exists in one’s idea; what appears to humans is not the world itself but one’s idea of it.


2. Empiricism / materialism- Reality may be reduced to physical properties; our ideas of the world are simple reflections. Structured by innate physical properties of the universe.

Hegel’s Philosophy of History

Social world composed of ideas, concept of “world/absolute spirit”, focused on dialectic of ideas and how the processes manifest itself in history. History obeys certain dialectic logic to reveal an idea “Freedom”. That is one way to interpret the evolves of human history.

The Dialectic Process

Thesis generated its own anti thesis;
Synthesis of above two develops then soon new antithesis appears
New Synthesis develops again, new antithesis appears again....

The thesis to explain the society and social development combine the both theories synthesis. As synthesis moving on, the anti-thesis may come up again. Social movement, reach certain point will generate its own anti-thesis. Dialectical is the movement of ideas through the time. By observing historical pattern, unfold with individuals and more pawns in its developments, Hegel assumed historical development would end up with an eternal Prussian State as such a final synthesis.

That is remnant of the ideas in Marx’s work, like communism.

Interpretation of Hegel’s work:

• Right wings: accept Prussian State as an embodiment of world spirit and reason.


• Left wings (young Hegelian) regarded present situation as not perfect yet.

Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872)

• He was an enthusiastic follower of Hegel and one of leaders of young Hegelians in 1840.


• Later became critical of Hegelian, Idealism and religion, especially Christianity.


• He thinks Gods created by man, were themselves idealized creations of human being. He believed that any progress in human culture and civilization required the repudiation of religions.

Key Influence of Marx’s work
o German Philosophy –Hegel, criticism of Hegel, critical of religion
o French socialism
o English political economy

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

• A capitalist himself, from Manchester of English, owned mill and manufactories


• Wrote “conditions of the working class” 1840


• Lift time collaboration and supporter to Marx


• Integrated all the intellectual traditions which Marx was concerned with.

Key Concepts of Marx

• Mixed feeling about religion. On one hand, he said the religion is an illusion, much more than clear thought is need to abolish it. On the other hand, he said religion is “heart of a heartless world”


• Young Hegelian critique: The young Hegelian focus on convincing people of the strength of the logical argument; as long as people were poor, ignorant and therefore need help, religion would constantly reproduce itself.


• He inverted Hegelian dialectic, which ignored real individuals and real conditions. Marx located the dialectic in the material world, especially material social relationships.


• o His conception of human nature – species being, unique feature of human being is that we created our world, while animals live in symbiotic relationship from all others.


• Human being, self-consciousness as species distinct from all other:


• Human must create a world in which to live: ability to change the environment in creative fashion in order to produce the necessity of life.


• Human products act as a mirror through which humans can come to see their own states


• Objectification- a process of human creative working by using nature resources to give self consciousness and self-awareness.


• Social relation being created when we exchange the things we produce with one another; human being as species also survive collectively and individually because of society.

The Communist Manifesto (1849) a political pamphlet

Key concept:

1. Bourgeoisie: owners of capital in capitalist societies


2. Proletariat: property less labors who live by selling their labor power to capitalists in exchange for wages. Condition of employment: exploitation, in creating value increase the wealth and power of the bourgeoisie against their own interest. (Exploited and oppressed), class struggle will lead capitalist society dissolve. Marx had tried to locate the social tension in capital society.


3. Relations of production. Economic and social relations between producers and non producers in the course of economic production


4. Force of production and means of products. Like raw materials, tools, technology


5. Model of production. A particular combination of a set of relations of production and forces of production

Organizing economic production:

Primitive communism, Feudalism, Capitalism
Capitalist has constant pressure for technology advancement, which leads to change of force of production then leads to relations of production and work structure, then relation of citizen and leaders.

Marx’s approach

Human nature- creativity production, self awareness, exchange of creativity productions to build up social relation

Critical social theories, a critical exercise in exposing the faults of society.
Concerning issues of such as emancipation, regaining creative capacity, well being.

The notion of material dialectic-
Economic structure moves history
Thinking from a historical perspective.